It is well established that many medically significant biological processes are mediated by proteins participating in signal transduction pathways that involve G-proteins and/or second messengers, e.g., cAMP (Lefkowitz, Nature, 351:353-354 (1991)). Herein these proteins are referred to as proteins participating in pathways with G-proteins or PPG-proteins. Some examples of these proteins include the GPC receptors, such as those for adrenergic agents and dopamine (Kobilka, B. K., et al., PNAS, 84:46-50 (1987); Kobilka, B. K., et al., Science, 238:650-656 (1987); Bunzow, J. R., et al., Nature, 336:783-787 (1988)), G-proteins themselves, effector proteins, e.g., phospholipase C, adenyl cyclase, and phosphodiesterase, and actuator proteins, e.g., protein kinase A and protein kinase C (Simon, M. I., et al., Science, 252:802-8 (1991)).
For example, in one form of signal transduction, the effect of hormone binding is activation of an enzyme, adenylate cyclase, inside the cell. Enzyme activation by hormones is dependent on the presence of the nucleotide GTP, and GTP also influences hormone binding. A G-protein connects the hormone receptors to adenylate cyclase. G-protein was shown to exchange GTP for bound GDP when activated by hormone receptors. The GTP-carrying form then binds to an activated adenylate cyclase. Hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, catalyzed by the G-protein itself, returns the G-protein to its basal, inactive form. Thus, the G-protein serves a dual role, as an intermediate that relays the signal from receptor to effector, and as a clock that controls the duration of the signal.
The membrane protein gene superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors has been characterized as having seven putative transmembrane domains. The domains are believed to represent transmembrane α-helices connected by extracellular or cytoplasmic loops. G-protein coupled receptors include a wide range of biologically active receptors, such as hormone, viral, growth factor and neuroreceptors.
G-protein coupled receptors have been characterized as including these seven conserved hydrophobic stretches of about 20 to 30 amino acids, connecting at least eight divergent hydrophilic loops. The G-protein family of coupled receptors includes dopamine receptors which bind to neuroleptic drugs used for treating psychotic and neurological disorders. Other examples of members of this family include calcitonin, adrenergic, endothelin, cAMP, adenosine, muscarinic, acetylcholine, serotonin, histamine, thrombin, kinin, follicle stimulating hormone, opsins, endothelial differentiation gene-1 receptor and rhodopsins, odorant, cytomegalovirus receptors, etc.
G-protein coupled receptors can be intracellularly coupled by heterotrimeric G-proteins to various intracellular enzymes, ion channels and transporters (see, Johnson et al., Endoc., Rev., 10:317-331 (1989)). Different G-protein α-subunits preferentially stimulate particular effectors to modulate various biological functions in a cell. Phosphorylation of cytoplasmic residues of G-protein coupled receptors have been identified as an important mechanism for the regulation of G-protein coupling of some G-protein coupled receptors. G-protein coupled receptors are found in numerous sites within a mammalian host.
Chemokines, also referred to as intercrine cytokines, are a subfamily of structurally and functionally related cytokines. These molecules are 8-10 kd in size. In general, chemokines exhibit 20% to 75% homology at the amino acid level and are characterized by four conserved cysteine residues that form two disulfide bonds. Based on the arrangement of the first two cysteine residues, chemokines have been classified into two subfamilies, alpha and beta. In the alpha subfamily, the first two cysteines are separated by one amino acid and hence are referred to as the “C-X-C” subfamily. In the beta subfamily, the two cysteines are in an adjacent position and are, therefore, referred to as the “C-C” subfamily. Thus far, at least nine different members of this family have been identified in humans.
The intercrine cytokines exhibit a wide variety of functions. A hallmark feature is their ability to elicit chemotactic migration of distinct cell types, including monocytes, neutrophils, T lymphocytes, basophils and fibroblasts. Many chemokines have proinflammatory activity and are involved in multiple steps during an inflammatory reaction. These activities include stimulation of histamine release, lysosomal enzyme and leukotriene release, increased adherence of target immune cells to endothelial cells, enhanced binding of complement proteins, induced expression of granulocyte adhesion molecules and complement receptors, and respiratory burst. In addition to their involvement in inflammation, certain chemokines have been shown to exhibit other activities. For example, macrophage inflammatory protein 1 (MIP-1) is able to suppress hematopoietic stem cell proliferation, platelet factor-4 (PF-4) is a potent inhibitor of endothelial cell growth, Interleukin-8 (IL-8) promotes proliferation of keratinocytes, and GRO is an autocrine growth factor for melanoma cells.
In light of the diverse biological activities, it is not surprising that chemokines have been implicated in a number of physiological and disease conditions, including lymphocyte trafficking, wound healing, hematopoietic regulation and immunological disorders such as allergy, asthma and arthritis.
Thus, there is a need for polypeptides that modulate immune system regulation, since disturbances of such regulation may be involved in diseases, disorders, and/or conditions relating to the immune system. Therefore, there is a need for identification and characterization of such human polypeptides which can play a role in detecting, preventing, ameliorating or correcting such diseases, disorders, and/or conditions.
The G-protein Chemokine Receptor (CCR5) is a seven-pass transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor that is expressed in cells of the immune system such as, for example, macrophages, including immature dendritic cells such as Langerhans cells, and T cells, including Th0 and Th1 effector cells. G-protein Chemokine Receptor (CCR5) has also been detected in microglia, astrocytes, neurons, and vascular endothelial cells of the central nervous system (CNS). G-protein Chemokine Receptor (CCR5) is also expressed in monocyes and T cells in the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis patients, and has also been implicated in other forms of arthritis.
Ligands of G-protein Chemokine Receptor (CCR5) include MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-3, MCP-4, RANTES, and Eotaxin. CCR5 is also a major co-receptor for HIV, and may be also be recognized by other infectious agents, such as other viruses, to allow entry into the cell. It was recently discovered that certain individuals harboring a mutation of the CCR5 gene, were resistant to HIV infection despite multiple exposure to the virus. This mutation abrogated expression of CCR5 at the cell surface (Liu et al., Cell 86:1 (1996)).
HIV is currently the leading lethal infectious disease in the world, causing 2.6 million deaths in 1999. The number of deaths resulting from HIV infection will continue to increase; In 1999, there were 5.6 million new cases of HIV infection and 33.6 million infected people living in the world. Although there are currently 14 approved drugs to treat HIV, as many as one half of patients fail to be successfully (with success being defined as no detectable HIV RNA in serum (which in effect is equal to fewer than 50 copies/ml of HIV-1 RNA) treated after a one year drug regimen. The reasons for the inability of these drug regimens to effectively treat HIV are several fold: use of certain drugs results in the development of drug resistant HIV strains; some individuals are intolerant to certain drugs or the drugs have bad side effects; patients have difficulty complying with complex dosing regimens; and the drugs may not be able to access reservoirs of HIV in the body. Thus, there remains a need in the art to develop improved HIV vaccines and therapies.